Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure | General Chemistry 1
Quantum Theory
Heisenberg uncertainty principle:
It is impossible to measure simultaneously the position x and the momentum p = mv of a particle. The more accurately we know one of these values, the less accurately we know the other
(Δx)(Δp)
Δx = uncertainty in measuring the position
Δp = uncertainty in measuring the momentum
h = Planck constant = 6.63 x 10-34 kg.m2.s-1
The Schrödinger equation:
The central equation of quantum theory consistent with both the wave nature of particles and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. The Schrödinger equation provides wave functions Ψ of the position of the electron associated with allowed energies
Atomic orbital:
The wave function Ψ of an electron in an atom. An atomic orbital has a characteristic energy as well as a characteristic electron density distribution. The electron density is the relative probability of finding an electron at a particular point in space. For one-electron systems, the electron density of an electron in a certain orbital is described by the square of the wave function Ψ2 associated with that orbital
Quantum Numbers
An atomic orbital is defined by 3 quantum numbers: the principal quantum number (n), the azimuthal quantum number (l), and the magnetic quantum number (ml)
Principal quantum number (n):
n = 1, 2, 3, ...
It describes the size of the orbital. The larger n is, the larger the orbital is
n = 1 ⇒ first shell = lowest energy allowed = ground state
Azimuthal quantum number (l):
l = 0, 1, 2, … n-1
It describes the shape of the atomic orbital:
l = 0 ⇒ s orbital (spherical symmetry)
l = 1 ⇒ p orbital (cylindrical symmetry around its long axis)
l = 2 ⇒ d orbital
l = 3 ⇒ f orbital
Atomic orbitals are characterized by sets of quantum numbers:
n = 2, l = 1 ⇒ orbital 2p
n = 3, l = 0 ⇒ orbital 3s
Magnetic quantum number (ml):
ml = -l, -l + 1, … , -1, 0, 1, … , l - 1, l
It describes the orientation of the orbital in space
s orbital: l = 0 ⇒ ml = 0 ⇒ 1 possible orientation
p orbital: l = 1 ⇒ ml = -1, 0, 1 ⇒ 3 different orientations: px, py, and pz
d orbital: l = 2 ⇒ ml = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 ⇒ 5 different orientations: dxy, dyz, dxz, dx²-y², and dz²
Caution: l = 1, ml = -1 does not mean px but p orbital with one specific orientation (px or py or pz) different than those of the orbitals l = 1, ml = 0 and 1
Electron Spin
Spin quantum number (ms):
2 electrons that occupy the same atomic orbital have different electron spin quantum numbers, either - or + . We can differentiate the spin of an electron by representing an arrow pointing down (spin down = - ) or up (spin up = + ). 1s orbital with 2 electrons is represented by:
Arrangement of Electrons
Shell vs. subshell
Electron shell: a group of atomic orbitals with the same principal quantum number n (n = 1 ⇒ first shell)
Electron subshell: a group of atomic orbitals with the same principal quantum number n and azimuthal quantum number l
Number of subshells in the first 2 electron shells:
First shell: n = 1 ⇒ l = 0 ⇒ 1 subshell (s subshell)
Second shell: n = 2 ⇒ l = 0, 1 ⇒ 2 subshells (s subshell and p subshell)
Energies of atomic orbitals
The energy states of atoms with 2 or more electrons depend on the values of both n and l (electrons-nucleus + electron-electron interactions). The order of orbital energies is: 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s ... You can easily remember this order by using the mnemonic on the right:
Electron configuration:
The arrangement of electrons in the atomic orbitals of an atom. An atomic orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons. The maximum number of electrons in each subshell is as follows:
- s subshell: 1 s orbital ⇒ 2 electrons
- p subshell: 3 p orbitals ⇒ 6 electrons
- d subshell: 5 d orbitals ⇒ 10 electrons
- f subshell: 7 f orbitals ⇒ 14 electrons
How to write the electron configuration:
- Electrons reside in the lowest energy orbitals available
- Each orbital can accommodate a maximum of 2 electrons
- The orbitals are filled in the order of the orbital energy
Electron configuration of oxygen and iron:
Oxygen (Z=8) ⇒ 8 protons + neutral ⇒ 8 electrons: 1s2 2s2 2p4
Iron (Z=26) ⇒ 26 protons + neutral ⇒ 26 electrons: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6
Electronic Structure Principles
Pauli exclusion principle:
2 electrons in an atom cannot have the same set of 4 quantum numbers (n, l, ml, ms)
First shell: n = 1 ⇒ only 2 possible combinations: (1, 0, 0, +1/2) and (1, 0, 0, -1/2)
This explains why there is a maximum of 2 electrons in the 1s orbital
Aufbau principle:
Electrons fill subshells of the lowest available energy before filling subshells of higher energy. This principle, coming from Aufbau in Geman which means “building-up”, allows to build up the periodic table by successively adding one proton to the nucleus and one electron to the appropriate atomic orbital
Hund's rule:
Orbitals of equal energy, called degenerate orbitals, must all contain one electron with the same spin before they can contain 2 electrons
Electronic structure of carbon (Z=6):
And not:
Paramagnetic substance: a substance with unpaired electrons (weakly attracted by a magnetic field)
Diamagnetic substance: a substance without unpaired electrons (not attracted by a magnetic field)
Excited States
Ground state: the lowest energy state of an atom
Excited state: a state with higher energy than the ground state. Electrons are promoted from the ground state to an excited state by electromagnetic radiation of intensity hν. The first excited state corresponds to the promotion of the highest energy electron from the ground state to the next available orbital
First excited state of the lithium atom:
Li (1s2 2s1) + hν → Li* (1s2 2p1)
Core vs. Valence Electrons
Core electrons: electrons of the inner energy levels. They do not participate in chemical bonding and form the atomic core with the nucleus
Valence electrons: electrons of the outermost occupied shell of an atom. They are furthest from the positive charge of the nucleus and therefore tend to react more easily than the core electrons
Number of valence electrons in an oxygen atom:
Electron configuration of oxygen: 1s2 2s2 2p4
Outermost occupied shell: n = 2. There are 2 e- in 2s, 4 e- in 2p ⇒ 6 valence electrons
For the electron configuration, we can use an abbreviated form by replacing the electronic configuration of the core electrons by [previous nearest noble gas]
Iron (Z = 26): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6 = [Ar] 4s2 3d6
Check your knowledge about this Chapter
The uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to measure simultaneously the position x and the momentum p = mv of a particle. The more accurately we know one of these values, the less accurately we know the other
(Δx)(Δp)
Δx = uncertainty in measuring the position
Δp = uncertainty in measuring the momentum
h = Planck constant = 6.63 x 10-34 kg.m2.s-1
The Schrödinger equation is the central equation of quantum theory consistent with both the wave nature of particles and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. This equation provides wave functions Ψ of the electron’s position associated with allowed energies
An atomic orbital is the wave function Ψ of an electron in an atom. An atomic orbital has a characteristic energy as well as a characteristic electron density distribution
An atomic orbital is defined by 3 quantum numbers: the principal quantum number (n), the azimuthal quantum number (l), and the magnetic quantum number (ml). The electrons that occupy an atomic orbital are defined by their spin quantum number (ms)
- The principal quantum number (n) describes the size of the orbital. The larger n is, the larger the orbital is
- The azimuthal quantum number (l) describes the shape of the atomic orbital
- The magnetic quantum number (ml) describes the orientation of the orbital in space
- The spin quantum number (ms) describes the spin of an electron in an atomic orbital, either - or +
- Principal quantum number: n = 1, 2, 3, ...
- Azimuthal quantum number: l = 0, 1, 2, … n - 1
- Magnetic quantum number: ml = -l, -l + 1, … , -1, 0, 1, … , l - 1, l
- Spin quantum number: ms = - or +
The azimuthal quantum number (l) describes the subshells and thus the shape of the corresponding atomic orbital:
- l = 0 ⇒ s orbital (spherical symmetry)
- l = 1 ⇒ p orbitals (cylindrical symmetry around its long axis)
- l = 2 ⇒ d orbitals
- l = 3 ⇒ f orbitals
The electron shell is a group of atomic orbitals with the same principal quantum number n (n = 1 ⇒ first shell) while the electron subshell is a group of atomic orbitals with the same principal quantum number n and the same azimuthal quantum number l
An atomic orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons. Thus:
- s subshell: 1 s orbital ⇒ 2 electrons
- p subshell: 3 p orbitals ⇒ 6 electrons
- d subshell: 5 d orbitals ⇒ 10 electrons
- f subshell: 7 f orbitals ⇒ 14 electrons
The order of orbital energies is: 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s ... You can easily remember this order by using the mnemonic on the right:
- Electrons reside in the lowest energy orbitals available
- Each orbital can accommodate a maximum of 2 electrons
- The orbitals are filled in the order of the orbital energy
When we assign electrons to orbitals, we must follow a set of three rules: the Pauli exclusion principle, the Aufbau principle, and the Hund's rule
The Pauli exclusion principle states that 2 electrons in an atom cannot have the same set of 4 quantum numbers (n, l, ml, ms)
The Aufbau principle states that electrons fill subshells of the lowest available energy before filling subshells of higher energy. This principle, coming from Aufbau in Geman which means “building-up”, allows to build up the periodic table by successively adding one proton to the nucleus and one electron to the appropriate atomic orbital
The Hund’s rule states that orbitals of equal energy, called degenerate orbitals, must all contain one electron with the same spin before they can contain 2 electrons
A paramagnetic substance is a substance with unpaired electrons and therefore weakly attracted by a magnetic field while a diamagnetic substance is a substance without unpaired electrons (not attracted by a magnetic field)
The ground state is the lowest energy state of an atom, while an excited state is a state with higher energy than the ground state. Electrons are promoted from the ground state to an excited state by electromagnetic radiation of intensity hν. The first excited state corresponds to the promotion of the highest energy electron from the ground state to the next available orbital
- The core electrons are the electrons of the inner energy levels. They do not participate in chemical bonding and form the atomic core with the nucleus
- The valence electrons are the electrons of the outermost occupied shell of an atom. They are furthest from the positive charge of the nucleus and therefore tend to react more easily than the core electrons